Module 1 Educational Technology

103 DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCES IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Module I- Educational technology concept, approaches and scope

1.1   Educational Technology

Educational Technology is a combination of two terms education and technology. Education refers to the process of bringing up or leading out the inherent potentialities from the pupil. It is the process by which the knowledge, skills and attitude are transmitted to the members of the community.

            Technology refers to the techniques as well as technical contrivances which enhance a process. It is a systematic way of applying the techniques to achieve an objective. Therefore Educational Technology can be defined as the systematic application of technology in the field of education. Like any other term, Educational Technology has been defined variously. According to G.O.M. Leith ‘Educational Technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning’.

Concept of Educational Technology

            Educational Technology is a wider term which is more than the sum of its parts. Educational Technology is not a simple combination of these two words as shown below

o   Technology in Education

o   Technology of Education

Early developments referred to the role of technology in education which signifies the use of audio-visual equipment that is hardware in educational process. Later development recognises the concept of technology of education that is techniques and methodologies of teaching and learning. This is indeed the software aspect of educational technology. Educational technology is also different from audio-visual aids. Educational Technology is a vast subject concerned with the application of scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of learning in order to improve the effectiveness of teaching, learning and evaluation.

            Audio –visual aids are merely the aids or resources, i.e., materials which are employed to improve the quality of the message. Audio-visual aids are only a part of educational technology.

Meaning of Educational Technology

            Educational Technology is a system of 5M’s in education in which machines, material ,men, media and methods are interrelated and work together for the fulfilment of specific educational objectives. Technology explosion has yielded several new machines, materials and media which have great potential for use in the educational enterprise. An adequate knowledge of theory and practice of educational technology and their proper use would enable the teacher to understand and effectively discharge his new roles in the educational system in the age of ‘information explosion’, ‘knowledge explosion’ and ‘expectation explosion’.

            Educational technology is branch of study in which the results of engineering techniques, information science, natural science, behavioural science and human technology are to be used to promote the efficiency of education.

            Broadly speaking educational Technology connotes three meanings. The first view which may call educational technology I (ET 1) refers to the application of Physical Science and engineering technology to provide mechanical or electro-mechanical tools, instruction or hardware which can be used for instructional purposes. In this sense ,the reference is generally to the use of equipment for presenting instructional material such as still and motion pictures, projectors, tape recorders, television, teaching machine and computer based technology.

            The second view which may call educational technology 2 (ET 2) refers to the application of scientific principles to instruction. Here psychological principles of learning are stressed. The third and modern view of educational technology 3(ET3) incorporates both ET1 and ET2 through the application of a system approach to education. According to this view education should be considered as a system in which machines, materials, media, men and methods are incorporated parts and are organised in such a way as they work together for the fulfilment specific educational objectives.

Nature and Characteristics of Educational Technology

         Educational Technology is the application of scientific principles to education

         It lays stress on the development of methods and techniques for effective teaching-learning

         It emphasis the designing of measuring instruments for testing learning outcomes

         It involves input, output and process aspect of education

         Educational Technology is not to be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids in education

         Educational Technology is a comprehensive term and is not to be viewed in terms of its parts or processes. It includes instructional technology, teaching technology, programmed learning, micro teaching and system etc..

Significance of Educational Technology

      The growing use of educational technology helps to release the teacher from the routine role of ‘information giving’ so that he can devote his time and effort to the more important tasks of planning, arranging and evaluating learning experiences and outcomes. Another noticeable trend is the creation of multi-media learning environments in classrooms which involve the use of a variety of interrelated learning experiences.

The US Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) has listed the following important benefits of educational technology.

         Technology can make education more individual

         Technology can make education more effective

         With the use of technology instructions can have more scientific base

         Technology makes instruction more powerful

         Technology provides immediate and equal  access to information

In spite of these the use of technology has the following benefits also.

         Involvement of maximum senses

         Utilise maxims of teaching

o   Proceed from known to unknown

o   Proceed from simple to complex

o   Proceed from easy to difficult

o   Proceed from concrete to abstract

o   Proceed from particular to general

         Attention compellers

         Motivating force

         Reduce verbalism and monotonous teaching

         Helps in clarifying concepts

         Substitute for direct experience

         Meets inadequate resources

         Develops scientific attitude

         Helps in better learning and retention

         Makes teaching-learning attractive inspirational and effective

         Cater to individual differences of students

Principles of Educational Technology

            While using educational technology in classroom teacher should consider the following principles.

1)      Principle of Purposiveness

          There shall be a definite purpose in using technological methods and devices in classrooms. Use of it should not be considered as a substitute for teaching.

2)     Principle of Economy

            While suggesting a machine or method, the affordability must be considered.

3)     Principle of ease in the use of an aid

            When a teacher selects one aid from among a possible set, he should have the competency to handle it. It is better to avoid complicated gadgets.

4)     Principle of Availability

            Availability must also be considered while selecting a hardware or software.

5)     Principle of Simplicity

            Easy to use or simple methods are recommended than the complicated ones. It should not confuse the minds of pupil.

6)     Principle of Stimulation

            The technology used in the classroom should be inspirational. They are meant to supplement oral and written presentation.

7)     Principle of Self-preparation

            It is preferred to use self- prepared learning materials and method for the transparency in preparation.

Scope of Educational Technology

            The scope of Educational Technology is as wide as education itself. The scope includes the use of hardware and software and system analysis in various educational operations. The possibility of using ET in almost all areas of education has been and is being explored. As such the scope of ET encompasses educational objectives, media and their characteristics, criteria for selection of media and resources, management of resources, as well as their evaluation. ET increases the output of the entire system of education.

Ø  ET tries to study the phases of teaching, skills of teaching and learning, principles of teaching, maxims of teaching etc.

Ø  ET as a discipline strives for the formulation of objectives and goals of education based on individual and social needs.

Ø  ET includes planning of curricular and non-curricular inputs on the basis of goals and objectives of education. It also highlights the ways and means of content selection, transaction and sequencing of teaching learning activities.

Ø  ET develops tools of evaluation to provide feedback and based on this modifications are incorporated in the process.

Ø  ET has its scope for the development of the course content, curriculum, the development of teaching learning materials etc.

Ø  Training of teachers, teacher-training programme, development of suitable strategies and techniques of teaching.

Ø  Selection and use of appropriate audio-visual aids for making the  teaching-learning process more meaningful and realistic.

Ø  Effective use of hardware, software and mass media

Ø  Individualized instructional technology

Ø  Programmed learning

Ø  Models of teaching

Ø  Multimedia approach to teaching

Ø  Communication technology

Ø  Task-analysis, preparation of modules

Ø  Computer, internet, E-mail, teleconferencing, virtual classrooms, satellite instruction etc.

Ø  Micro teaching, simulation, and other training techniques  

Approaches to Educational Technology

HARDWARE APPROACH:

The hardware approach is based on the application of engineering principles for developing electro-mechanical equipment for instructional purposes. Motion pictures, tape recorders, television, teaching machines, computers are called educational hardware.

Hardware approach mechanises the process of teaching so that teachers would be able to deal with more students with less expenditures in educating them.

Human knowledge has three aspects:

§  Preservation,

§  Transmission and

§  Development

The history of preservation of the knowledge is believed to exist since the printing machines started. The knowledge is preserved with these machines in the form of books which are shelved in the libraries, tape recorders and films.

The second aspect of human knowledge is its transmission. A teacher can impart knowledge himself to his pupils. Now a days, transmission of the knowledge is supported by machine like mike, radio and television. With these, thousands of pupils enjoy this home-delivery of such benefits.

The third aspect of human knowledge is its development. For this aspect, provisions are made for research work. In the research programmes, the main function is the collection and analysis of data. For this purpose, presently the researcher uses the electronic machines and computers. Hence, all the three aspects of knowledge allow the use of machines. In short, the teaching process has been mechanized. The mechanization of teaching process is termed as the Hardware Approach.

SOFTWARE APPROACH:

The software approach used the principles of psychology for building in the learners a complex repertory of knowledge or modifying his behaviour. It originates from behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning. Psychology of learning provides solid technology for bringing desirable behavioural changes in the pupils and thus serves the cause of education of laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and behaviour modification devices. The pioneering work in software approach was done by Skinner and other behaviourists. The programmes which such a technology produces are often called software. Software Approach is also termed as Instructional Technology or Teaching Technology or Behavioural Technology. Newspapers, books, magazines, educational games, flash cards may also form part of software. Software approach is characterised by task analysis, writing precise objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies, immediate reinforcement of responses and constant evaluation.

Hence Software Approach is concerned with teaching objectives in behavioural terms, principles of teaching, methods of teaching, reinforcement of instructional system, feedback, reviews and evaluation. Software approach tries to develop all the three basic components of technology, i.e. Input, Process and Output.

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES

Hardware Technology	Software Technology
1. Hardware technology has its origin in physical sciences and applied engineering.	1. Software technology has its origin in behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning
2. Here we are more concerned with the production and utilization of audio visual aid material and sophisticated instruments and mass media for helping teacher and learners in their task.	2. Here we try to make use of psychology of learning for the production and utilization of software techniques and materials in terms of learning material, teaching-learning strategies and other devices for smoothening the task of teaching learning.
3. It tries to adopt product-oriented approach. What is produced through software technology in the shape of teaching-learning material and strategy in being utilized by the hardware instruments and gadgets for effective teaching learning.	3. It tries to adopt a process-oriented technique or approach for the production of teaching-learning material and strategies. The material produced here is made available for being used by the hardware application.
4. It is based on the concept of service meaning hereby that it provides services in the field of education much in the same way as provided by telephone, electric heater, bulb etc. in the sphere of our day to day life. In this sense hardware technology clearly stands for making use of technology in education.	4. Software technology does not provide direct services to its users as provided by hardware technology and applied engineering. It helps in the production of software material being used by the hardware applications and gadgets for delivering their service to the users i.e. teachers and learners.
5. As examples of the appliances and gadgets being used in hardware technology service we can name radio, television, tape recorder, video, slides and film projectors, teaching machines and computer etc.	5. As examples of the material produced through software technology we can name, programmed learning material teaching learning strategy on psychology of learning (put into practice in the shape of charts, pictures, models, slides filmstrips, audio and video cassettes, software packages etc.)
6. Hardware technology needs the services of software technology for its use and functioning. It can’t go without the aid of software technology e.g. computer hardware in the shape of a machine like device is of no use if it does not make use of software services both for its operation as a machine and its multi-dimensional utilities. The use of application and utility software is in fact must for taking any service from the hardware technology of the computer.	6. Software technology proves most useful and productive in the case if it is assisted and made into use by the hardware applications and gadgets. However, it can go alone for delivering its services to the users without calling aid from the hardware technology i.e. you can make use of programmed learning material a graph a text, etc. directly for the individualized as well as group instructions.
7. Hardware technology has its mass appeal and utilization. It can contribute a lot in handing over the educational benefits to masses with greater case and economy.	7. Software technology has no such wide application and appeal to masses as found in the case of hardware appliances like radio, telephone, computer application, etc.
8. Hardware technology has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational, means and reducing the cost of education. A teacher may handle a big class with the help of hardware appliances like microphone, slide and film projectors etc.	8. Software technology also works for increasing the efficiency of the teachers as well as learning. However, it lags behind in the task of improving efficiency and reducing the cost of education.

SYSTEMS APPROACH:

System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a system as “a regularly interacting or independent group of items forming a unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with the help of an example – various parts of the digestive system may be called as components of digestive system. Every component of the digestive system contributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive system as a whole.

In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its aspects and parts, namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives. The teaching-learning process is viewed as communication and control taking place between the components of a system. In this case, the system is composed of a teacher, a student and a programme of instruction, all in a particular pattern of interaction.

The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning experiences and effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of providing continuous self-correction and improvement. It is concerned with all elements of instruction including media, including hardware and software. Its purpose is to ensure that the components of the organic whole will be available with the proper characteristics at the proper time to contribute to the total system fulfilling the objectives.

In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely the utilization of selected resource material and the classroom activities. The teacher should have a good overall view of the subject, know his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual differences in their learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach involves continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of results of evaluation to suitably modify the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives.

Major steps in the systems approach in education are:

1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and  defining instructional goals,
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to  take place,
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available  alternatives,
6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required,
7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and  supporting staff,
8. Implementing the programme,
9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in  student performance and
10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’  learning.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the specific goal.

ii. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for attaining the defined goal.

iii. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other factors.

iv. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in terms of student learning.

v. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be made.

LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new method or approach.

ii. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of school personnel. Some are not prepared for the extra load.

iii. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems approach. Though it has been successfully implemented industry, it has still to make headway in education.

CONCLUSION. From the above discussion, it is understood that system approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. In education, this means planned and organised use of all available learning resources, including audio-visual media, to achieve the desirable learning objectives by the most efficient means possible.

Multi-sensory learning

            The idea that learning experienced through all the senses is helpful in reinforcing memory has a long history in pedagogy. From the earliest teaching guides (Montessori 1912), educators have embraced a range of multi-sensory techniques in order to make learning richer and more motivating for learners. The term is used to refer to any learning activity that combines two or more sensory strategies to take in or express information. Multisensory approaches have been particularly valuable in literacy and language learning, for example, in relationships between sound and symbol, word recognition, and the use of tactile methods such as tracing on rough or soft surfaces. The Department for Education and Skills (DES, 2004) defines multi-sensory as: ‘using visual, auditory and kinaesthetic modalities, sometimes at the same time’. Kinaesthetic refers to perceiving through touch and an awareness of body movements. Teachers working with dyslexic learners have found multi-sensory approaches particularly valuable, as they help learners to make sense of information in a range of ways. Activities that harness all the senses are also an excellent way to include learners with disabilities.

What is a multisensory approach?

            A multisensory approach, "also known as VAKT (visual-auditory-kinesthetic-tactile) implies that students learn best when information is presented in different modalities (Mercer & Mercer, 1993). The belief is that students learn a new concept best when it is taught using the four modalities. A multisensory approach is one that integrates sensory activities. The students see, hear, and touch. "Activities such as tracing, hearing, writing, and seeing represent the four modalities". This gives multiple pathways for the information to reach the brain. It is diagnostic as it involves constant testing and reflection on the knowledge of the student.

            For example, to teach spelling Graham and Freeman (1986) use a strategy that incorporates the four modalities. Students say the word, write the word, check the word, trace the word, write the word from memory and check, and then repeat the entire process. Thus it treats sound-symbol knowledge, oral language (grammer & pronunciation), written language conventions and hand writing in an organized and integrated fashion. In essence, a multisensory approach incorporates the learning styles for visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile learners. This approach doesn't single out a specific learning style for a specific student. A multisensory approach is an eclectic approach that teaches all children regardless of their preferred learning style.

            Multisensory teaching is effective for all students. In general, it means presenting all information to students via three sensory modalities: visual, auditory, and tactile. Visual presentation techniques include graphic organizers for structuring writing and pictures for reinforcing instruction; auditory presentation techniques include conducting thorough discussions and reading aloud; tactile presentation techniques include manipulating blocks and creating paragraphs about objects students can hold in their hands. Overall, implementing a multisensory approach to teaching is not difficult; in fact, many teachers use such an approach. It is important, however, to be aware of the three sensory modes and to plan to integrate them every day. Effective teachers select and use the most appropriate approach for the learning task and the learners’ situation. In particular, multimedia resources can promote inclusive learning if accessibility features are built in. This can enable learners with hearing or visual impairments to use the same resources as others.

            Multimedia provides a complex multi-sensory experience in exploring our world through the presentation of information through text, graphics, images, audio and video, and there is evidence to suggest that a mixture of words and pictures increases the likelihood that people can integrate a large amount of information (Mayer, 2001).

            Multisensory techniques are frequently used for children with learning differences. Multisensory teaching techniques and strategies stimulate learning by engaging students on multiple levels. They encourage students to use some or all their senses to:

• Gather information about a task
• Link information to ideas they already know and understand
• Perceive the logic involved in solving problems
• Learn problem solving tasks
• Tap into nonverbal reasoning skills
• Understand relationships between concepts
• Store information and store it for later recall

            Using a multisensory teaching technique means helping a child to learn through more than one sense. Most teaching techniques are done using either sight or hearing (visual or auditory). The child’s sight is used in reading information, looking at text, pictures or reading information based from the board. The hearing sense is used to listen to what the teacher says. The child’s vision may be affected by difficulties with tracking or visual processing. Sometimes the child’s auditory processing may be weak. The solution for these difficulties is to involve the use of more of the child’s senses, especially the use of touch (tactile) and movement (kinetic). This will help the child’s brain to develop tactile and kinetic memories to hang on to, as well as the auditory and visual ones.

Multimedia Approach

What is Multimedia?

            Multimedia is one of the important innovations in the field of educational technology to improve the process and product of teaching – learning. The multimedia approach consisting of the use of many appropriate and carefully selected devices, techniques and media in such a combination as to yield in the most effective realization of the teaching- learning objectives in a best possible way . In other words, multimedia is the combination of various digital media, into an integrated multi-sensory interactive application or presentation to convey information to an audience.

Multimedia approach

            The term multimedia approach to teaching – learning may be referred to the use of appropriate and carefully selected varieties of learning experiences which when presented to the learner through selected teaching strategies will reinforce and strengthen one another in such a way that the learner will achieve predetermined objectives in an effective way. Multimedia approach to teaching – learning can be classified in different ways. These media are so selected and planned as to yield in best possible results in a most appropriate economical combination. Multimedia helps students to construct knowledge actively, work in group and use multi-senses at a time. Multimedia is very effective and advanced approach in higher education.

Definitions

            The term multimedia by definition means ‘more than one media’. According to Hofstetter (2001), multimedia is the use of computer to present and combine text, graphics, audio and video with links and tools that let the user navigate, interact, create and communicate.

            Multimedia is characterized by the presence of text, pictures, sound, animation and video; some or all of which are organized into some coherent program (Phillips, 1997).

            Multimedia approach is an approach of teaching in which different mediums are incorporated to make the teaching-learning more effective, enthusiastic, inspirational, meaningful & interesting.      

Nature of Multimedia Approach

Multi - Many

Media - Techniques /methods.

Ø  Multimedia approach uses a number of media, devices, techniques, in the teaching learning process.

Ø  Multimedia approach has come out of researches and experiments in educational technology that have been undertaken in order to improve the process of teaching learning.

Ø  Multimedia approach aims at providing meaningful learning experiences via a mix of media in order to achieve predetermined objectives.

Ø  The choice of the media has to be done carefully so that one does not hamper or reduce the effect of the other i.e. each media must complement the after.

Ø  The media have to used sequentially and judiciously. Only necessary ones are to be used. Then it would be possible to make optimum use of them in a most economical manner. In multimedia approach, several media and techniques are used as powerful means of communication.

Characteristics of Multimedia

ü  Multimedia calls for the use of a number of media, devices and techniques for teaching- learning.

ü  Multimedia approach is the contribution and net result of the researches and experiments going on in the subject of education technology for improving the process and products of the act of teaching- learning.

ü  The variety of media are carefully selected as to prove quite effective in providing learning experiences to the learners foe achieving the pre-determined teaching- learning objectives.

ü  These media are so selected and planned as to yield in best possible results in a most appropriate, economical combination.

ü  While selecting different media for adopting multimedia approach it is cared that the presence of one must increase the effect of others. 

ü  Multimedia approach asks for the judicious and planned use of the hardware and software available in the field of educational technology.

ü   In multimedia approach the several media and techniques can be effectively used as appropriate vehicles for the needed communication of ideas in the process of teaching-learning.

Interactive Multimedia Components

            Interactive multimedia is a tool which has had a great impact in the field of education. This tool uses five elements and combines them into a single powerful tools.

The five media are –

i) Text ii) Animation iii) Video iv) Graphics v) Sound.

Role of teacher in Multimedia approach

            The teacher has to make a lot of modifications and adjustment if he has to adopt multimedia approach. His role would have a different connotation compared to the traditional role. He would have to make these changes.

i) The teacher has to adopt a number of methods and techniques; he cannot be satisfied with the lecture or the chalk talk method.

ii) The teacher has to be aware of the different available media and their availability the teacher should be physically competent to use and demonstrate the use of different media.

iii) The teacher should be skilful enough to make a judicious choice of media and be competent enough to mix them sequentially and in an orderly manner.

iv) The teacher’s role is that of a facilitator or manager of activities. He has to lead his students for independent, individualized learning.

v) The teacher should provide experience such that the students can link practice and theory & integrate them.

vi) The teacher has to make learning a living and co-operative process by giving group activities like seminar, symposium, workshops and interacting with the people in real work situation.

vii) The lecturer has to play a very constructive role in making his students learn the things in a quite practical way by giving through concrete and living experiences.

Educational Implications of Multimedia/Advantages of Multimedia Approach

·         Multimedia enables students to represent information using several different media. Hypermedia links allow students to organize information in meaningful ways.

·         Multimedia can take into account different learning styles. Some students learn by interpreting text, while others require more graphical or aural representations.

·         Multimedia allows for self-pacing and discovery, students can take the time they need and choose the path of learning making learning meaningful and pleasurable.

·         Multimedia can arouse the curiosity among the learner and provide them vivid impressions.

·         Multimedia can develop a positive attitude among the learners towards the teaching-learning process.

·         Technique of simulation can be effectively applied through the multimedia approach.

·         Multimedia helps in development of higher order thinking skills. Interactive multimedia encourages student.

·         Multimedia provided the students the flexibility of anywhere, ‘any time’ learning.

·         Multimedia helps in developing group and interpersonal skills. Better communication between students via e-mail, chat sessions etc., can encourage collaborative learning and enhance student-teacher interaction.

·         Multimedia helps students to learn the content in a given discipline. It helps students to think effectively, practice problem solving and decision making.

·         Effective remediation programmes can be implemented through the multimedia approach.

·         Multimedia approach can bridge language barriers since audio is not the only means of communication.

Disadvantages

·         Requires highly sophisticated infrastructure facilities, which may lead to heavy financial burden.

·         Expertise and skill are required to operate the multimedia devices, which will lead to the problem of non-availability of human resources.

1.2 Audio-Visual Aids

            Sense organs are the gateways of knowledge. Sensory experiences form the foundation for any intellectual activity. These experiences are transacted in the classroom using a number of teaching aids. These teaching aids reinforce the spoken or written word with concrete image, which form a strong base for learning.

            Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between audio visual material and teaching learning process.

            Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned components of educational programs.  It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation. A.V. aids are multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning.

            Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding.

Definitions:

1. Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.

2. Burton: Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and reinforce learning.

3. Carter V. Good: Audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.

4. Good’s dictionary of education: audio visual aids are anything by means of which learning process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.

5. Edger Dale: Audio visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also termed as multi sensory materials.

6. McKean and Roberts: Audio visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher, through the utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate concepts, interpretations and appreciations.

Significance of Audio- Visual Aids

            Audio- Visual aids are added devices that help teacher to clarify, establish, correlate and coordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations and enable him to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational, meaningful and vivid. They provide significant gains in informational learning, retention and recall, thinking and reasoning, activity, interest, imagination, better assimilation and personal growth and development.

            According to Kothari Commission (1964-1966), Audio Visual aids will bring about an ‘educational revolution, in the country. It further stated that the supply of teaching aids to every school was essential for the improvement of the quality of teaching. 

Educational Significance

·         Best motivators: The students work with more interest and zeal and are more attentive.

·         Clear images: Clear images are formed when we see, hear, touch, taste and smell, as our experiences are direct, concrete and more or less permanent.

·         Vicarious experience: Substituted experience can be provided when it is not possible to give firsthand experience

·         Freedom: There is great scope for children to move about, talk, laugh and comment upon, and in such a situation they work because they want to work.

·         Variety: Audio Visual aids give variety and provide different tools in the hands of the teacher.

·         Opportunities to handle and manipulate: Many visual aids offer opportunities to students to handle and manipulate things.

·         Retentivity: They contribute to increased retentivity as they stimulate response of the whole organism to the situation in which learning takes place.

·         Based on maxims of learning: It enables the follow the maxims of learning like ‘concrete to abstract’, ‘known to unknown’ and ‘learning by doing’.

·         Promotion of scientific temper: In place of listening facts students observe demonstrations and phenomena and thus cultivate scientific temper.

·         Development of higher faculties: Use of A-V aids stirs the imagination, thinking process and reasoning power of the students and calls for creativity and higher mental activities.

·         Helpful in attracting attention

·         Helpful in fixing up new learning

·         Meeting individual differences

·         Encouragement to healthy classroom interaction

·         Reinforcement to learners

·         Positive transfer of learning and training

·         Positive environment for creative discipline 

Advantages of Audio visual aids

1.      It helps in effective perceptual and conceptual learning.

2.      It is helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students.

3.      It arouses interest and motivates students to learn.

4.      It is helpful in new learning.

5.      It helps in saving energy and time of both the teacher’s and students.

6.      It provides near realistic experience.

7.      It can meet individual demands.

8.      It develops interest of the students.

9.     It makes teaching and learning effective

10.    It is useful in for education of masses.

11.    It is easy and inexpensive to make and update.

Disadvantages

1.      It makes the student to heavily depend on the teacher

2.      It is unsuitable for large groups

Problems in the Use of Teaching Aids

            In spite of the increasing popularity that the audio-visual aids have gained in the educational system, there are certain problems to be faced and solved. These are:

1.      Apathy of the Teacher: It has not yet been possible to convince the teacher that teaching with words alone is quite tedious, wasteful and ineffective.

2.      Indifference of Students: The judicious use of teaching aids arouses interest but when used without a definite purpose they lose their significance and purpose.

3.      Ineffectiveness of the Aids: Because of lack of proper planning and lethargy of teacher as also without proper preparation, correct presentation, appropriate applica­tion and essential follow up work, the aids have not proved their usefulness.

4.      Financial Hurdles: The Boards of audio-visual aids have been set up by central and state governments for chalking out interesting programmes for the popularisation of teaching aids but the lack of finances is not enabling them to do their best.

5.      Absence of Electricity: Most of the projectors cannot work without electric current and so the non-availability of electricity is creating a hurdle in the proper use of audio-visual aids.

6.       Lack of Facilities for Training: More and more training colleges or specialised agencies should be opened to train teachers and workers in the use of audio-visual aids.

7.      Lack of Coordination between Center and States: Good film libraries, museums of audio-visual education, fixed and mobile exhibitions and educational 'melas' should be organised both by center and states.

8.      Language Problems: Most of the education films available are in English and we need such films in Hindi and other Indian Languages.

9.      Not catering to the Local Needs: Most of the audio-visual aids being produced do not cater to the local needs and not in accordance with the social, psychological and pedagogical factors.

10.   Improper Selection of Films: Films are not selected in accordance with the class-room needs.

In spite of all these problems the future of such aids can be bright if there is proper planning on the part of the government and coordina­tion between producers, teachers and students. Useful and effective aids can be produced after getting the reaction of the audience and doing research work in the field.

Classification of Audio Visual Aids

I.                   Projected Aids

                 A projected aid is one which items to be observed are projected on a screen using electronic or Mechanical device. They are very effective because movements can be added to sound and hence a realistic experience can be provided. The major projected aids are;

  Film & Film Projector

•    Films in the form of motion pictures.

•    Films enrich learning by presenting a series of meaningful experience involving motion.

•    Can enlarge or reduce the actual size of the object to suit the need.

  Film strips & Film strip Projector

•    A film strip is piece of non-inflammable safely film, 35 mm wide.

•    Length may vary according to requirement and can be up to about one meter.

•    One film strip may contain 10 to 50 pictures frames.

•    The pictures in film strip may constitute a connected series of drawings, photographs, diagrams or combination of these and illustrated a single sequence.

•    The pictures may in color or in black or white.

•    Some films strips are accompanied by commentary recorded separately, such film strips is called sound film strip.

Slides & Slide Projector

•    The pictures or diagrams which are drawn in suitable medium is called slide. (Glass or Transparency)

•    Slide can be enlarged by projecting it on a screen with a slide projector.

• Slide projector is an instrument equipped with a powerful light source and a carrier for holding slides of suitable size.

• Some slide projectors uses drums in which many slides can be loaded in proper sequence in advance.

•    It is also possible to record the narration in a tape recorder that could be hooked up to the projector in such a way as to give the necessary commentary without the help of the teacher.

Episcope & Epidiascope

•    Episcope is used for the projection of opaque objects.

•    Pictures, photographs, drawings or an opaque material within the size of the platform of the episcope can be projected using Episcope.

•    Episcope used to enlarge book diagrams and illustrate complex pictures.

•    During Epi-projection the class room should be totally darkened in order to get a clear and bright image.

•    Epidiascope can project opaque as well as transparent objects.

OHP

•    This is called Over Head Projector because it projects the image behind and over the head of the teacher.

•    The transparent visual is placed on a horizontal platform at the top of the light source.

•    The teacher can place the transparent plate on the platform and write or draw on it anything that is to be visualized using suitable pen.

Television

•    TV is very exciting and efficient means of mass communication.

•    Educational Television programmes aims at education rather than entertainment.

•    One teacher or specialist can render teaching session and pass information to millions of viewers all over the world.

LCD Projector

•    LCD (Liquid Cristal Display) is the most advanced and sophisticated projected aid.

•    In the area of educational technology, we can replace all other projected and non projected aids with only a single LCD projector and computer system.

•    Can present a topic by using computer made slide, graphs, pictures, video clips, movies and special effect.

II.                Non-Projected Aids

 II(a). Graphic Aids

•    Graphic Aids are visual aids such as graphs, diagrams, charts etc.

•    They can be conveying the message by a combination of written and pictorial visuals that could be made meaningful by suitable captions.

•    The criteria for good graphics are that they should be simple, legible and brief.

Graphs

• Normally used to represent the nature of the relation of two dependent variables.

• Different types of graphs are line graph, bar graph and pie graph

Diagrams

• Used to explain many factors at the same time, by using a variety of symbol and labels

• Diagrams can explain facts more vividly than charts

Posters

• Posters are bold and attractive representation of an idea or concept and usually given in color.

• Poster catches the eye and conveys the desired message.

Maps

• A map is an accurate representation of the boundaries and other details of continents, countries etc. on a plane, in the form of a diagram drawn to scale.

• A variety of geographical details like location of mountains and rivers, altitude of places, important cities and other places etc. can be represented accurately with reference to a convenient scale and following suitable color scheme.

            Different types of maps that are used in classroom: Geographical Maps, Historical Maps, Industrial Maps and Political Maps.

Cartoons

• A cartoon is a metaphorical, humorous and exaggerated caricature of a person or situation in the form of a picture or sketch.

Comics

• A comic strip is a form of cartoon depicting a story in sequence.

• The events are arranged in the proper order in a attractive pictorial form that is normally appealing to lower age groups.

 Flash cards

• Flash cards are an aid used in language lesson, especially in the lower class.

• The card containing the reading material is exhibited for a few seconds only. Then it is removed and the feedback attempted.

Pictures and Photographs

• Pictures and photographs play a significant role in making ideas clear and comprehensive.

Charts

• A chart may be defined as a combination of graphics and pictorial media designed for the orderly and logical visualizing of relationship between key fact and ideas.

• Different types of charts are: Display chart, Flow chart, Tabular chart, Tree chart and Time chart.

II (b).  Display Boards

              The stereotype atmosphere of the traditional classrooms, libraries and corridors of schools is recently giving way to attractive and educative surroundings with a wealth of display materials. Displays may be categorised into three main types according to the functions they perform, namely motivational, developmental and summary.

              Displays that attract and appeal pupils and stimulate their curiosity are called motivational displays. Displays that add information and ensure active involvement of pupils in the development of a lesson are termed developmental displays. Displays that are used for review and consolidation of a lesson are called summary displays.

Black Board

• Most basic, widely used tool for display

• Teaching cannot be successful without proper use of a Black Board.

• Black Board planning is a precious skill to be developed by a teacher.

Roll-Up-Board

• Roll-Up-Board is that which can be conveniently rolled up.

• These are usually made of thick rexin cloth.

• The charts and pictures can be drawn on it advance and presents as and when required.

Peg Board

• To display flat and three dimensional materials

• Use hooks and clips to display materials.

Hook and Loop Board

• Intended to suspend heavy 3-D objects as well as flat materials.

• Objects can be easily fixed and removed.

Flannel Board

• Flannel cloth used to make this board.

Magnetic Board

• A sheet of iron that attracts a piece of magnet can be used for magnetic board.

Bulletin Board

• Used to display bulletin, News items, announcement etc.

 Marker Board

• Large plastic board suitable for writing or drawing with markers.

• This can be used the same way as chalk boards.

• It can be sometimes used as a projection screen also.

II (c). Three Dimensional Aids

 Models

            Models are concrete representations of objects, their size being adjusted to make it handy and conveniently observable. They can clearly exhibit the structure or functions of the original. There are two types of models. Working model and Static (still) model. Working model is more effective than static model.                                                  

Objects

 Objects may be defined as the real things from their natural settings.

Eg.Rock, Coin, stamp etc.

Specimen

A specimen may be defined as a typical objects or part of an object which has been removed for convenient observation.  It may be a representative of a class or group of similar objects.

Mock-ups

 A mock-up is an operating model usually of a process, designed to be worked with directly by the learner for specific training or analysis. When direct firsthand experience is either impractical or impossible, mock-up can be used. Mock-ups is an imitation of the real process. Eg. Mock Parliament

Diorama

A diorama is a three dimensional scene in depth, incorporating a group of modelled objects and figures in a natural settings. A diorama scene is set up on a small stage with a group of modelled objects that are kept on the foreground and blended into a painted realistic background.  For representation of depth, object kept at the background are made considerably smaller to create illusion.

Puppets

A puppet is a manipulative doll dressed as a character and the performer is a person.  E.g : shadow puppet,  finger/ glove puppet, string puppet. Puppet actions should be accompanied by short dialogues.

II (d). Audio Aids

Radio: The most common form of public education and entertainment. Effective for mass education and distant education

Tape Recorder: A tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget to record, reproduce. This device can be used without much fuss by erase and re-record sound.

Public Address System: An electronic sound amplification and distribution system with a microphone, amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a large public.

III.             Activity Aids

  Field Trip and Excursions

• Excursions usually involve a tour by a person or a group of person to some selected lace.

• An excursion undertaken for gathering objective based learning experience is study tour.

• The tour made by a group is often known as Field Trip

• Provides direct experience leading to effective understanding. 

 Exhibition

• In exhibition variety of items exhibits related to teaching and learning.

• Exhibitions are effective modes of mass communication and instruction.

• Special talents of the pupil get revealed and creativity can be fostered.

• Helps to communicate novel ideas to children, their parents and the general public.

Demonstration

• It is a technique which is often used by all teachers.

• Ideas, skills, attitudes and process can be demonstrated.

• Demonstration should be purposeful, simple, specific and effective.

• Demonstration should be planned and rehearsed well in advance.

• If demonstration designed by the co-operative activity of pupil and teaches, it will be more effective.

Dramatization

• Dramatization gives a reality and concreteness to learning experience.

• Gives opportunity for self expression

• Very useful for the subject like social science and languages.

• Since emotional content is strong, it help in the development of interest, attitude and values.

Museum

• Museum is powerful medium for public education.

• Museums are repositories with an array of educational materials including rare specimens a variety of objects arranged in a logical order.

Planetarium

• A planetarium consist of essentially of a dome usually mounted on the ceiling of a hall to represents the sky.

• A special projector is used to display images of the celestial bodies on the dome.

• The viewers who are seated below can see the projected images that can be appear to be realistic.

• The projector consists of various individual units for projecting the sun, the moon, the planets and the stars.

• Taped narration and sound effects adds to the effectiveness of the presentation.

Aquarium

• Aquarium consists of glass tanks filled with water in which aquatic creatures are kept in naturally.

• Pupils can observe the natural behavior of the creatures.

• If a school aquarium is constructed and maintained by the pupils they get very valuable learning experience related to various aspects of life science.

 Terrarium

• Terrarium is an arrangement for presenting the creatures living on the surface and below the surface of the earth for study purpose.

• It is an enclosure, usually a tank. Used for rearing plants or animals under natural conditions.

Programmed Learning

            Programmed Learning is a carefully specified, systematically planned, empirically established, skillfully arranged and effectively controlled self- instructional technique for providing individualized instruction or learning experience to the learner. Programmed learning is available in the form of Books, Cards, Machine etc.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

• A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with programmed instructional materials.

• “It is the use of computer to assist in the presentation of instructional material to a student to monitor learning process or to select additional instructional material in accordance with the needs of individual learners”

• Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.

• CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process.

Teaching Machines

• Developed by S.L. Pressy

• It’s a piece of device designed to be operated by an individual student for self learning.

• The student is presented with a question by some form of display on the machine.

• The student is required to respond, either to write answer or put a button to indicate the correct response.

• The student will inform the correctness of the answer.

• An account is kept of the responses made by the student

Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience

            The Cone of Experience is a visual model meant to summarise Dale’s classification system for the varied types of mediated learning experiences. Edgar Dale the chief exponent of audio-visual aids in teaching is the originator of the ‘Cone of Experiences’. The diagram appears in his book ‘Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching’ (1946).

            There is a popular saying on Audio- Visual aids, “ I hear I forget, I see I remember, I do I understand”. It is said that, People remember: 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what they see and hear, 70% of what they say and write and 90% of what they say and do.

            All the learning experiences which can be utilized for classroom teaching are shown by Edgar Dale in a pictorial device-‘pinnacle form’- which he called the ‘cone of experiences’. The one considered by Dale as the most effective are placed at the bottom of the cone and those considered least effective at the top. This arrangement is based on increasing abstractness.

            It was merely designed as a visual aid to explain the relationships of the various types of audio-visual materials as well as their individual positions in the learning process. Dale points out that it would be a dangerous mistake to regard the bands on the cone as rigid, inflexible divisions.            

The original labels for Dale’s ten categories in the Cone of Experience were:

1.      Direct, Purposeful Experiences

2.      Contrived Experiences

3.      Dramatic Participation

4.      Demonstrations

5.      Field Trips

6.      Exhibits

7.      Motion Pictures

8.      Radio, Recordings, Still Pictures

9.      Visual Symbols and

10.  Verbal Symbols

            He said “The cone device is a visual metaphor of learning experiences, in which the various types of audio-visual materials are arranged in the order of increasing abstractness as one proceeds from direct experiences”

Direct purposeful experiences: These are the experiences that are gained through senses. These are not only direct but also purposeful. Purposeful means that the experiences are active with a purpose. Hence they are preferred in teaching as they provide as they provide the means to establish correct initial concepts in the minds of the pupil.

Contrived experience: It is an imitation of reality. It is like a working model which is an editing of reality and differs the original either in size or n complexity. The simplification of the real objects becomes necessary when the real thing cannot be perceived directly.

Dramatic participation: In dramatization certain real events of the past are represented so that we can get as close as possible. The experience is more meaningful when one actively participates in the dramatization.

Demonstration: Demonstration is a technique designed to show or illustrate a procedure, process or phenomenon. Demonstrations are concrete experiences that can be used for structuring future information to the students.

Field Trip: Field trip is the connecting link between school and the community. This technique is unique in that the pupil gain first hand experiences with the things and phenomena which cannot be brought into the classroom.

Exhibitions: When it is not feasible to go out into community, it comes exceedingly important that we bring the outside world into the classroom by means of exhibits and concrete representation of things.

Television: Television is one step ahead of motion pictures since it can bring the real event as it actually happens.

Motion pictures: Motion pictures present an abstract version of the real event. Motion pictures with sound system would yield good results in teaching all the subjects in the school curriculum.

Radio, Recordings and Still pictures: Educational telecast of radio are also considered as a powerful teaching aid. Still pictures or photographs can be either projected or given for individual study.

Visual symbols: This will include black boards, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams and cartoons. When properly employed they tend to promote a keener interest and better understanding of concepts.

Verbal symbols: Here the experiences occur at the conceptual level. The teacher codes the original item into symbols and passes it on to the pupil. Pupil decodes the symbols back into the original image. These are considered as the least effective method in teaching.

Interpretation of Dale’s Cone of Experience

·         Lower levels of the cone involve the student as a participant and encourage active learning.

·         Higher levels compress information and provide data faster.

·         Upper levels of cone need more instructional support than lower levels.

·         As we go up to the cone, abstractness increases and is highest at the pinnacle.ie. verbal symbols.

·         As we go down the cone, concreteness increases and is maximum at the base.

            The various bands are not perfect. E.g. Field trips, which are placed high in the cone, are sometimes sources of experiences nearly equal to direct experiences.

How can Instructors Use the Cone of Experience?

·         According to Dale’s research, the least effective method at the top, involves learning from information presented through verbal symbols, i.e., listening to spoken words.

·         The most effective methods at the bottom, involves direct, purposeful learning experiences, such as hands-on or field experience.

·         Direct purposeful experiences represent reality or the closest to real, everyday life.

·         The chart rates the average retention rate for various methods of teaching. The further ones progresses down the cone, the greater the learning and the more information is likely to be retained.

·         It also suggests that when choosing an instructional method it is important to remember that involving students in the process strengthens knowledge retention.

·         It reveals that “action learning” techniques result in up to 90% retention. People learn best when they use perceptual learning styles. Perceptual learning styles are sensory based. The more sensory channels possible in interacting with a resource, the better chance that many students can learn from it.

·         According to Dale, instructors should design instructional activities that build upon more real-life experiences.

·         Dale’s cone of experience is a tool to help instructors make decisions about resources and activities.